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於兴中
哈佛大学法学博士、康奈尔大学讲席教授
摘要:法律格言是民众长期积累的有关法律或公正的原则,它们被普遍承认,具有普通法一样的权威。培根认为法律格言的使用能够使法律思维更加完备,于是收集了大量的法律格言。现在能看到的培根的法律格言,主要收录在培根辞世以后出版的《英国普通法要义》一书中的25条格言,而培根搜集的拉丁语格言有300多条,其余的不知所终。培根收集的法律格言及其阐释,是他经验主义实证研究的开山之作,其中有些至今仍然有效。
关键词:培根 法律格言 普通法
弗朗西斯·培根(FrancisBacon 1561~1626)
培根将《英国普通法要义》献给女王时,曾明确指出,他撰写该书的目的是为了纠正当时普遍存在的对英国法律的误解和误用。科学的兴起使人的良心发生了变化。法律的不确定性给了人们发挥个人意志的空间,从而使法律充满了随意性。总结和梳理普通法中的格言和原则正是对这种随意性的限制和补救。培根认为,法律经常被不良法官玩弄于手中而有所损益。法律格言和原则的真谛不应该被随意曲解,而应由权威人士作出解释,廓清其界限,限定其含义。
伊丽莎白一世女王(Elizabeth I 1533~1603)法律格言是一些普遍承认的关于法律和公正的既定原则或主张,有点像几何中的公理,反映的是一国或一地的法律和习俗,是民众长期经验的积累。法律格言曾经被视为具有和制定法、普通法同样的法律权威,一经法官确定和运用便成为法律的一部分。然而,比较困难的是,法官如何将格言应用到具体案例之中?因为法律格言往往兼具原则和规则的性质,有的抽象,有的具体,需要法官解释并确定可否用在某一具体案件中。一般而言,法律具有很强的时间性和空间性。一时一地适用的法律在时空条件发生改变之后就不一定再适用。法律借鉴和移植历来都是法律发展的主要途径。当不同法系中的内容被借鉴融合在一起时,其格言也有可能存在冲突。而且,法律格言内部并不具有系统性,往往会有互相矛盾的情况存在。但是,如果从法律是理性的反映,而理性是具有普遍性的这一立场来看,法律格言在很大的程度上具有普遍意义。职是之故,它才能广泛流传,历久不衰,虽然起源于某一特定法律文化,但却能适用于不同的法律传统。培根在该书序言中指出:“愿拉丁语格言的使用能够帮助我们排除疑虑并完善判断,进而,愿它能帮助我们使论辩变得更加优雅精致,消除无益的琐碎言词,使法律论证得以体现更加健全和完备的法律思维,纠正粗俗的错误,乃至在一定程度上修正我国法律的性质和面貌。”而他认为自己乃是最合适从事这项重要工作的人。从他的学识、见解及经验来看,培根确实是此项工作的不二人选。遗憾的是,他最终没有完成这项宏伟的工程。培根之所以收集法律格言也许是受到了他父亲的影响或启发。培根的父亲,老掌玺大臣,尼古拉·培根曾执掌衡平法院。在位期间,收集了许多衡平法上的格言。培根年少时曾有所目睹。他之所以会倾力收集普通法格言想必与此有关。如前所述,培根总共收集了300多条普通法格言,但流传下来的除了收集在《普通法要义》中的25条之外,散见于其他著述中的也为数不多。《英国普通法要义》(The Elements of the CommonLawes of England)然而,更有可能的是,培根之所以这样做,反映了他对法律的基本态度。英国法律史家们大都认为,普通法的初始阶段,也同其他文化传统中法律发展的情形大致相同。法律乃是由具体事例缘起,在前文字时代经过所谓“文化模范”们口耳相传,逐渐由不成文演变为成文法。培根所处的年代,普通法已初具规模,但无论是前人留下来的法律智慧,还是法官们作成的判例,尽管已经形成文字,留存在法律卷宗里,但都是一盘散沙,极其缺乏系统性。加之当时的法律智慧多用拉丁语表达,其含义有待进一步用英语明确。而中古英语,就如同古汉语一样没有句点,很易产生歧义。当时,罗马法复兴后已经席卷欧洲。培根要为普通法的蛮荒之地开出一条路径来,但他不愿意步入大陆法系的领地。故此他寄希望于整理普通法格言,既可为普通法提供指导,又不同于大陆法系的窠臼。故此,《法律格言》保留了拉丁语原文,而以英语作了详细解释。培根和库克两人对普通法的见解有相同之处,即普通法乃经验传统,但在如何将普通法系统化并将之留传后世,以供日后作为指导的问题上,二者却各持己见。库克在普通法研究上开创了形式主义的先河,认为普通法是“法官特有的科学”,它是集长期的研究、观察和经验于一身的“人为的完美理性”。只有训练有素的律师和法官才能完整地理解并把握它的奥秘,而其他英国人,包括国王和女王,其所学均不足以担当此重任。当库克致力于收集整理普通法案例汇编时,培根则着手搜集普通法格言精义,冀望与库克一争高下。而在“王在法下”或“王在法上”的问题上,两人的观点也正好背道而驰。库克曾经毫不犹豫地声言,是普通法保护国王,而不是国王保护普通法。培根则正好相反,认为国王的神圣地位不可动摇。爱德华·库克爵士(EdwardCoke 1552~1634)“我可以预见,”培根自己说,“如果爱德华·库克爵士的法律汇编和我自己的规则及判决能留传于世,那么谁是更好的法律人就说不定了(不管当下人们怎么看)。”如果说库克的法律汇编较之培根的法律著述更加展示了对于技术细节的全面掌握,丰富的先例知识以及对于法律形式的牢牢把握,那么,毫无疑问,培根的著述则表现出对于法理学抽象原则的更为深刻的阐发,并以圆满而富有伦理的精神弥补了干枯的法律细节的不足。仅凭这一点,培根好像确实是一流法律人。庞德在他的《法理学》第二卷中对培根的《法律格言》赞赏有加:“培根翻开了普通法格言史上的新篇章。他的《法律格言》先于库克的《科克论利特尔顿》。毫无疑问,培根的《法律格言》在方法上放弃了严格法律的思想,而代之以不甚严密的一般原则。”培根的这25条格言发表时只有拉丁语,没有对应的英语。在培根的其他著作中也没见到有这些格言的英文翻译。但是,培根对这些格言都用英语作了比较详细的解释。1630年版本中这些格言在目录和内容中的表述略有出入。霍根和施瓦茨在他们的文章中也有提及,但大体一致。比如,格言第20条,在目录中表述为“Actus inceptus,cuius perfectio pendet ex voluntate partium,revocari potesta; si autem pendet ex voluntatae tertiae personae, velexcont-ingenti ,revocari non potest.”而在内容中则省去了“revocari”。1880年S.S.珮路贝特(S.S.peloubet)所著的A Collection of Legal Maxims in Law and Equity,with English Translations一书悉数收入以往法律格言集里面的词条,并做了逐条英译,其中包括培根的这25条。这大概是最早把这些格言翻译成英语的一本书。A Collection of Legal Maxims in Law and Equity-with English Translations
霍根和施瓦茨的文中个别地方的拉丁语原文有拼写错误。录在下面的是笔者根据1630年和1636年两个版本,参考佩卢贝特、斯派丁和霍根等人的著述确定的原文。英文翻译主要来白霍根的版本,也参考了佩卢贝特和其他人的翻译。中文则是笔者自己琢磨的结果。
Maxim 1: In jure non remota causa,sed proximaspectator.
英文:In law it is the immediate ,not the remote ,causewhich is regarded.
中文:法律考虑近因,而非远因(终极原因)。
Maxim 2: Non pstest adduci exception ejusdemrei , cujus petitur dissulutio.
英文:It is not permitted to adduce as a bar, in the samemanner ,that which would dissolve the action. ( A plea of the same matter,the dissolution of which is sought by the action, cannot be broughtforward. When an action is brought to annul a proceeding, thedefendant cannot plead such proceeding in bar. )
中文:提起法律诉讼的事项,不应被解释为解除该诉讼的事项。
Maxim 3: Verba fortuis accipiuntur contraproferentem.
英文:A contract is interpreted against the person whowrote it. Words are interpreted more strongly against their user.
中文:一个人的言语和行为可以成为对他本人最不利的证据。
Maxim 4: Quod sub cer forma concessum velreservatum est , non trahitur ad valorem vel compensationem.
英文:That which is granted or reserved under a certaincondition is not to be extracted according to value or compensation. (That which is granted or reserved under a certain form, is not to be drawninto a valuation. )
Maxim 5: Necessitas inducit privilegium quoad juraprivate.
英文:Necessity introduces an exception into the rights ofindividuals. ( Necessity gives a preference with regard to private rights. )
中文:必然之事优待私权。
Maxim 6: Corporalis injuria non recipitaestimationem de futuro.
英文:Bodily injury does not await the future for itsevaluation. A personal injury does no receive satisfaction from a future courseof proceeding. )
中文:人身伤害需及时评估。
Maxim 7: Exusat aut extenuate delictum incapitalibus, quod non operatur idem in civilibus.
英文:There are extenuating circumstances in capital caseswhich do not operate in civil cases.
Maxim 8: Aestimatio praeteriti delicti expostremo facto nunquam crescit.
英文:the value of a past offense is never increased by asubsequent act.(The estimation of a crime committed never increased from asubsequent fact. The weight of a past offense is never increased by asubsequent fact. )
Maxim 9: Quod remidio destituitur ipsa re valetsi culpa absit.
英文:Whoever has been forsaken by a remedy, avails if heis without fault. (That which is without a remedy is valid by the thing itself,if there be no fault. That which is without remedyavails of itself, if there be no fault in the party seeking to enforce it. )
Maxim 10: Verba generalia restringuntur adhabilitatem rei vel personae.
英文:General words are restricted to the suitableness ofthe subject or person. ( General words should be confined to the character ofthe thing or the aptitude of the person. )
Maxim 11: Jura sanguinis nullo jure civilidirimi possunt.
英文:Rights founded in consanguinity cannot be destroyedby civil law. ( The right of blood and kindred cannot be destroyed byany civil law. )
Maxim 12: Receditur a placitis juris, potiusquam injuria, et delictamaneant impunita.
英文:A departure from Placita juris is preferable toletting wrongs and offences go unpunished. ( We dispense with the forms oflaw rather than that crimes and wrongs should be unpunished.Positive rules of law will be receded from, rather than crimes and wrongs
should remain unpunished. )
Maxim 13: Non accipi debent verba indemonstrationem falsam quae competunt in limitationem veram.
英文:Words ought not be accepted in proof as false, whenthey are rightly suitable as limitations. ( Words ought not to be taken ina false descriptive sense which are competent to describe a truelimitation. Words ought not to be taken to import a falsedemonstration which may have effect by way of true limitation. Words whichagree in a true meaning should not be received in a false sense. )
中文:具有一定真实意义的词语,不应理解为虚假陈述。
Maxim 14: Licet dispositio de interesse futurosit inutilis, tamen potest neri declaratio praecedens quae sortiatureffectum interveniente novo actu.
英文:Although the disposition of a future interest ispointless, a preceding declaration may be made, to take effect once a neweventhas occurred. ( Although the grant of a future interest be inoperative,yet a declaration precedent may be made, which may take effect, provided a newact intervene. )
Maxim 15: In criminalibus sufficit generalismaltia intentionis cum facto paris gradus.
英文:In criminal actions, it is sufficient if there is ageneral malice of intention with an act of equal degree. (In criminal cases ageneral intention is sufficient , when there is an act of equal orcorresponding degree. In criminal matters or cases, a general malice ofintention is sufficient,「if united」 with an act of equal orcorresponding degree. )
中文:凡刑事诉讼,根据犯罪意图和相应犯罪事实就足以定罪。
Maxim 16: Mandata licita recipiunt strictaminterpretationem, sed illicita latam etextensam.
英文:Delegation of authority should receive a strictinterpretation ;but unlawful authority, a wide and extensive one. ( Schaeffer:Delegation of lawful authority is subject to strict interpretation, but ordersto commit a crime are understood in the wider sense. Lawful commands receive astrict interpretation, but unlawful, a wide or broad construction. )
Maxim 17: De fide et officio judicis nonrecipitur quaestio , sed de scientia,Sive error sit juris Sive facti.
英文:The faith and duty of a judge are not subject toquestion, but it is otherwise of his knowledge either of law or fact.
Maxim 18: Persona conjuncta aequiparaturinteresse proprio.
英文:A personal connection is equal to one's owninterest.
Maxim 19: Non impedit clausula derogatoria, quominus ab eadem potestate res dissolvantur , a quibus constituuntur.
英文:A derogatory clause does not prevent things frombeing abrogated by the same power which established them. ( A derogatory clausedoes not prevent the dissolution of things by the same authority or power bywhich they were constituted. A derogatory clause does not prevent things oracts from being dissolved by the same power by which they were originally made.)
中文:不可撤销条款并不能防止事项不被制定该条款的同一权力废除。
Maxim 20: Actus inceptus, cuius perfectiopendet ex voluntate partium,revocari-potesta; si autem pendet ex voluntataetertiae personae, vel ex contingenti non potest.
英文:An act begun, the completion of which depends on thewill of the parties, may be revoked; but if it depends on the will ofa third person, or on a contingency, revocation is not possible.(An act already begun, the completion of which depends on the will of
the parties , may be revoked. But if the act dependson the consent of a third person, or on a contingency, it cannot berevoked. )
中文:如果法律行为的完成仅依靠双方的意志,那么,行为开始后仍然可以撤回;如果涉及第三方或者偶然因素的话,则该行为不能撤回。
Maxim 21:Clausula vel dispositio inutilis perpraesumptionem remotam vel causam, ex post facto non fulcitur.
英文:A useless clause or disposition is not supported bya remote presumption or an ex post facto event.
Maxim 22: Non videtur consensum retinuisse siquis ex praescripto minantis aliquidimmutavit.
英文:He is not regarded as having consented, ifthreatened by prescription from changing anything.
中文:如果某人被胁迫对协议的内容进行修改,应视为该人未同意。
Maxim 23: Ambiguitas verborum latens verificatione suppletur , nam quod exfacto-oriturambiguum verificatione facti tollitur.
英文:Hidden ambiguity in a text is corrected byverification, for a circumstance redered ambiguous in point of fact is madeclear by the verification of the fact.
中文:文本中存在的模糊性可以通过论证来消除,事实中存在的模糊性则可以通过事实证据来消除。
Maxim 24: Licita bene miscentur, formula nisijuris obstet.
英文:Lawful things are properly mixed, unless a rule oflaw opposes it.
中文:凡属合法,法出多门亦不为过,除非有相反规定。
Maxim 25: Praesentia corporis tollit erroremnominis, et veritas nominis tollit errorem demonstrationis.
英文:Bodily presence cancels error in the name; the truthof the name cancels error of description.
培根的这些格言有些很有用,有些似乎已经成为历史。据说他的另一部法学短著《国际法格言或公正与法律的渊源》(Aphorismi de jure gentium maiore sive de fontibusjusticiae et juris)写于詹姆士一世时期,失传已久,后于1980年被重新发现于英国德比郡的查慈华兹庄园。目前还没有看到汉译本。
《英国普通法要义》可能是培根的法学著作中最重要的一部,对于研究普通法和普通法法律思想发展的学者来说,应该是比较重要的参考资料。培根提倡一种经验主义的观察方法,但是他的经验主义并不是细碎的实证性的研究。而是一种基于经验的原则性的研究。收集法律格言,并且以具体的案件解释之,这是一条基于经验的理性化途径,一种很有特色的实证研究。培根曾计划写一部鸿篇巨制,从方法上思考整个学界的状态与改革。那时候是科学兴起的年代,根要从科学研究入手,研究如何做才能趋近真理。经验是和时间相匹配的。因此,培根才说,真理是时间的女儿而不是权威的女儿。一语道出了经验主义的真谛。培根的法律思想开启了实证研究和经验研究的先河。法律格言及其阐释乃是此方面的开山之作。
(转自“钱塘法律评论”)